Organizational culture

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Organizational culture includes values ​​and behaviors that "contribute to the unique social and psychological environment of an organization." According to Needle (2004), organizational culture represents the collective values, beliefs and principles of organizational members and is the product of factors such as history, product, market, technology, strategy, employee type, management style, and national culture; culture includes vision, values, norms, systems, symbols, language, assumptions, environment, location, beliefs, and organizational habits.

Bernard L. Rosauer's business executive (2013) developed what he calls the definition of an actionable organizational culture: "Organizational culture is an emerging - a countless complex state which produces from a combination of some simple ingredients.In "Three Belves: Business Culture Decoded" Rosau outlines three manageable materials that he says guide every business's culture Materials # 1 - Employees (focus on engagement) # 2 Work (focus to eliminate waste that increases value) waste # 3 Customer (focusing on possible referrals) He said that the purpose of the Three Bell Curves methodology is to bring leadership, their employees, jobs and customers together to focus uninterruptedly, lead to improvement in culture and brand Rosauer says 'If a methodology is not easy to remember, it will not be used.The Three Bel Curves Methodology is simple (remember) but the implementation requires strong leadership and perseverance. n guided by managing materials'. The dependence of research and findings of Sirota Survey Intelligence, which has been collecting employee data worldwide since 1972, Lean Enterprise Institute, Cambridge, MA, and Fred Reichheld/Bain/Satmetrix research related to NetPromoterScore.

Ravasi and Schultz (2006) write that organizational culture is a set of shared assumptions that guide what happens within the organization by defining the right behavior for various situations. It is also a pattern of behavior and collective assumptions taught to members of new organizations as a way to understand and, indeed, think and feel. Thus, organizational culture affects the way people and groups interact with each other, with clients, and with stakeholders. In addition, organizational culture can influence how many employees identify with an organization.

Schein (1992), Deal and Kennedy (2000), and Kotter (1992) suggest the idea that organizations often have very different cultures and subcultures as well. Although a company may have its own "unique culture", in larger organizations there are sometimes similar or conflicting subcultures because each subculture is linked to a different management team.

Flamholtz and Randle (2011) argue that organizational culture can be seen as a "corporate personality". They define it because it consists of values, beliefs, and norms that affect the behavior of people as members of the organization.

Video Organizational culture

Origins

The term culture in the organizational context was first introduced by Dr. Elliott Jaques in his book Cultural Changing Factory , in 1951. This is a published report of "a case study of the development in social life of an industrial community between April, 1948 and November 1950". "Case" is a publicly held British company involved primarily in the manufacture, sale, and servicing of metal bearings. This study deals with the description, analysis, and development of corporate group behaviors.

According to Dr. Elliott Jaques "factory culture is a traditional and traditional way of thinking and doing something, which is shared to a greater or lesser extent by all its members, and which new members must learn, and at least some receive, to be accepted into service at the company. "In simple terms, to the extent that people can share their shared desires, desires and aspirations, they can commit to working together. It is a matter of being able to care about the same thing, and it applies to countries as well as associations and organizations within the country.

Describe the work under Factory Changing Culture Elliott Jaques in his concept of the necessary organization establishes a list of rewards or organizational values ​​that can be obtained from people with their full commitment. Together they create an organizational culture or creed:

• Fair and equitable treatment for all, including fair pay based on equal salary differences for the level of work and achievement recognition related to the assessment of personal effectiveness.
• Leadership interaction between manager and subordinate, including shared context, self-effectiveness assessment, feedback, and recognition, and training.
• Clear the articulation of accountability and authority to generate trust and confidence in all employment relationships.
• Articulate a long-term vision of the organization through direct communication from above.
• Opportunities for everyone individually or through representatives to participate in policy development.
• Work for everyone at a level consistent with their level of capability, value, and potential interest.
• Opportunities for everyone to advance due to their potential ability to mature, in available opportunities

The role of managerial leadership at every level of the organization is to make these organizational values ​​operational.

Maps Organizational culture

Usage

Organizational culture refers to cultures in all types of organizations including schools, universities, nonprofit groups, government agencies, or business entities. In business, terms like corporate culture and corporate culture are often used to refer to similar concepts. The term corporate culture became widely known in the business world in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Corporate culture has been used by managers, sociologists, and organizational theorists in the early 80s. Organizational climate-related ideas emerged in the 1960s and '70s, and the terms now somewhat overlapped.

If an organizational culture is seen as something that characterizes the organization, it can be manipulated and changed depending on leadership and members. Culture as a metaphorical root sees organizations as cultures, created through communications and symbols, or competing metaphors. Culture is basic, with personal experience generating multiple perspectives.

The organizational communication perspective on culture of cultural outlook in three different ways: Traditionalism: viewing culture through objective things like stories, rituals and symbols

Interpretivism: viewing culture through a network of shared meanings (member organizations sharing subjective meanings)

Critical interpretation: viewing culture through a network of shared meanings and power struggles created by a network of similar competitor meanings

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Strong and weak

Flamholtz and Randle stated that: "A strong culture is that people understand clearly and can articulate.The weak culture is one that employees have difficulty defining, understanding, or explaining." Strong culture is said to be where staff respond to stimulus because of their alignment with organizational values. In such environments, a strong culture helps companies operate like oiled machines, engaging in exceptional executions with little adaptation to existing procedures as needed.

Conversely, there is a weak culture where there is little alignment with organizational values, and controls must be done through extensive procedures and bureaucracy.

Research shows that organizations that grow a strong culture have a clear value that gives employees a reason to embrace culture. A "strong" culture may be very useful for companies operating in the service sector because members of this organization are responsible for providing services and for evaluations made by important constituents about the company. Organizations can benefit from developing a strong and productive culture:

• Better adapt your company to achieve its vision, mission, and goals
• High employee motivation and loyalty
• Increase team cohesion among different departments and corporate divisions
• Promote consistency and encourage coordination and control within the company
• Establish employee behavior in the workplace, enabling organizations to be more efficient

Where culture is strong, people do something because they believe it is the right thing to do, and there is a risk of another phenomenon, group thinking. "Groupthink" is described by Irving Janis. He defines it as "a quick and easy way to refer to the way people think when they engage deeply in a cohesive group, when members of the struggle unanimously override their motivation to judge realistically alternative actions" (Irving Janis, 1972, p. 9). This is a situation where even if they have different ideas, they do not challenge organizational thinking, and therefore there is less capacity for innovative thinking. This can happen, for example, where there is a great dependence on the central charismatic figure within the organization, or where there is an evangelical belief in organizational values, or also in groups where a friendly climate is at the base of their identity (conflict avoidance ). In fact, groupthink is very common and happens all the time, in almost every group. Opposing members are often rejected or seen as a negative influence by other group members because they bring conflict.

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Health

Organizations must strive for what is considered a "healthy" organizational culture to improve productivity, growth, efficiency and reduce counterproductive behavior and employee turnover. Various characteristics describe a healthy culture, including:

• Acceptance and rewards for diversity
• Assess and treat each employee fair and respect the contribution of each employee to the company
• Employee pride and enthusiasm for organizations and work done
• Equal opportunity for every employee to realize their full potential within the company
• Strong communication with all employees regarding company policies and issues
• A strong corporate leader with strong directions and goals
• Ability to compete in industry innovation and customer service, and price
• Turnover rate is lower than average (immortalized by healthy culture)
• Invest in learning, training, and employee knowledge

In addition, performance-oriented culture has been shown to have statistically better financial growth. Such a culture has high employee involvement, strong internal communication and acceptance and encouragement for healthy risk-taking to achieve innovation. In addition, the organizational culture that explicitly emphasizes the factors associated with the demands given to them by industrial technology and growth will be better performers in their industry.

According to Kotter and Heskett (1992), organizations with adaptive cultures perform much better than organizations with cultures that are not adaptive. Adaptive culture translates into organizational success; this is characterized by managers who pay attention to all of their constituents, especially customers, initiate changes when necessary, and take risks. An uncooperative culture can significantly reduce a company's effectiveness, crippling the company from pursuing all its competitive/operational options.

Healthy companies are able to address employee concerns about the internal well-being of the organization, even before employees feel the need to raise issues externally. It is for this reason that the discloser of facts, especially when causing serious damage to the company's reputation, is perceived to often be a sign of chronic dysfunctional corporate culture. Another relevant concept is the notion of "cultural function". In particular, some organizations have a "functional" culture while others have a "dysfunctional" culture. A "functional" culture is a positive culture that contributes to the performance and success of the organization. A "dysfunctional" culture is a culture that inhibits or negatively affects the performance and success of an organization.

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Cultural management

There are many types of communication that contribute to creating an organizational culture:

• Metaphors such as comparing organizations with machines or families express the meaning of shared experiences of employees in the organization.
• Stories can set an example for employees about how or not to act in certain situations.
• Rites and ceremonies combine stories, metaphors, and symbols into one. Several different types of rites affect organizational culture:
  • Convert rite: employee moves to new role
  • Rites of degradation: employees have power drawn from them
  • Upgrading rite: public acknowledgment for employee achievement
  • Rites of renewal: improve existing social structure
  • Rites of conflict reduction: resolve arguments between specific members or groups
  • Integration rite: revive feelings of membership within the organization
• Reflexive comments are explanations, justifications, and criticisms of our own actions. These include:
  • Plans: comments on anticipated actions
  • Comments: comments on current actions
  • Account: comment about an action or event that has occurred

The comment expresses the interpretive meanings held by the speaker and the social rules they follow.

• Fantasy Themes are common creative interpretations of events that reflect the beliefs, values, and goals of the organization. They lead to rhetorical vision, or the views of the organization and its environment held by members of the organization.

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Bullying culture

Oppression is seen prevalent in organizations where employees and managers feel they have support, or at least implicit blessings, senior managers for their abusive behavior and bullying. Furthermore, the new managers will soon see this form of behavior as acceptable and normal if they see others get away and even be rewarded for it.

When the persecution occurs at the highest level, the effect may be far-reaching. That people can be disturbed irrespective of the status or rank of their organizations, including senior managers, suggests the possibility of a negative ripple effect, where intimidation can be lowered down because targeted supervisors may strip their own aggression on their subordinates. In such situations, a bullying scenario in a conference room can actually threaten the productivity of an entire organization.

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Culture of fear

Ashforth discusses the potentially destructive side of leadership and identifies what he calls a small tyranny, a leader who runs a tyrannical management style, which produces a climate of fear in the workplace. Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. When employees feel that bullies "get away with it," a climate of fear can be the result. Several studies have confirmed the relationship between bullying, on the one hand, and autocratic leadership and authoritarian ways of resolving conflict or dealing with disputes, on the other. Authoritarian leadership styles can create a climate of fear, where there is little or no room for dialogue and where complaining can be considered futile.

In a study of public sector union members, about one in five workers reported having considered leaving the workplace as a result of witnessing bullying. Rayner explains these figures by pointing to a climate of fear in which employees consider reporting to be unsafe, where bullies have "escaped with it" before even management knows the existence of bullying.

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Tribal culture

David Logan and coauthors have proposed in their Tribal Leadership book that organizational culture is changing gradually, based on the analysis of human groups and tribal cultures. They identified five basic phases:

1. Life sucks (subsystems that are disconnected from other functional systems such as tribes, gangs and jails - 2 percent of the population);
2. My life sucks (I'm trapped in the Dark Motor Vehicles and can not believe I have to spend my time in this lost effectiveness triangle - 25 percent of the population);
3. I'm great (and you're not, I'm detached from you and will dominate you regardless of your intentions - 48 percent of the population);
4. We are great, but other groups suck (Zappo quotes and attitudes of unification around more than individual competencies - 22 percent of the population) and
5. Life is great (citing Desmond Tutu's opinion of truth and value as the basis for reconciliation - 3 percent of the population).

This organizational culture model provides a map and context to lead an organization through five stages.

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Personal culture

Main: Personality psychology, Identity (social science)

Organizational culture is taught to the person because the culture is taught by his parents so as to change and model his personal culture. Indeed, employees and job applicants are advised to match their "personality to the corporate culture" and fit it. Some researchers even suggest and have made case study research on personality changes.

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National culture

Corporate culture is used to control, coordinate, and integrate subsidiaries. But differences in national culture exist that contribute to different views on management. The difference between the national culture is the deep-rooted values ​​of their respective cultures, and these cultural values ​​can shape how people expect the company to run, and how relationships between leaders and followers should, produce the difference between employers and employees about expectations. (Geert Hofstede, 1991) Perhaps equally basic; observing major differences in national copyright legislation (and taxation, etc.) shows profound differences in cultural attitudes and assumptions about property rights and sometimes about the desired basic functions, places, or objectives of the company related to the population.

Multiplicity

See also: Biculturalism

Xibao Zhang (2009) conducted an empirical study of the emergence of culture in the international cross-cultural management context of Sino-Western (SW-ICCM) in China. Field data were collected by interviewing Western expatriates and Chinese professionals working in this context, complemented by non-participant observation and documentary data. The data were then analyzed objectively to formulate theme-based substantive theories and formal theories.

The main finding of this research is that human cognition contains three components, or three broad types of "rules of cultural behavior", namely, Values, Expectations, and Ad Hoc Rules, each of which has a conditioning relationship with behavior. The three cognitive components differ in terms of scope and duration of each behavioral formation. Values ​​are rules of universal and lasting behavior; Expectations, on the other hand, are rules of context-specific behavior; while the Ad Hoc Rules are the rules of improvisational behavior formulated by the human mind depending on a particular event. Furthermore, they need not be consistent, and often not, among themselves. Metaphorically, they can be compared to a multi-carriage train, allowing for relative lateral movement by individual carriages to accommodate shocks and bends on tracks. In fact, they provide a "shock-absorber mechanism", so to speak, which enables individuals in the context of SW-ICCM to address conflicts in cultural practices and values, and to accommodate and adapt to the cultural context in which people of all national culture background working together for a long time. It also provides a strong framework that explains how interaction by individuals in the context of SW-ICCM leads to the emergence of hybrid cultural practices characterized by stability and change.

One of the major theoretical contributions from the perspective of this "multi-carriage train" is a provision for the existence of inconsistencies between the three cognitive components in their interconnected behavior. This internal inconsistency view is in stark contrast to the traditional internal consistency assumptions that are explicitly or secretly held by many cultural scholars. Another major theoretical contribution, which follows logically from the first, is to view culture as a thorough entity made of the Values, Expectations, and Ad Hoc Rules. The idea of ​​one (multiplicity) of this culture to an organization leads to a cultural classification along its path of emergence into newborn, teenage, and mature types, each of which differs in terms of patterns of the three components and cognitive behavior.

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Effects

Research shows that many outcomes have been linked both directly and indirectly to organizational culture. A healthy and strong organizational culture can provide a range of benefits, including the following:

• Competitive advantage comes from innovation and customer service
• Consistent and efficient employee performance
• Team integrity
• High employee spirit
• Strong company unification towards achievement of goals

Although little empirical research exists to support the relationship between organizational culture and organizational performance, there is little doubt among the experts that this relationship exists. Organizational culture can be a factor in the survival or failure of an organization - although this is difficult to prove given that the required longitudinal analysis is hardly feasible. Continuous superior performance from companies such as IBM, Hewlett-Packard, Procter & amp; Gamble, and McDonald's may, at least in part, be a reflection of their organizational culture.

A 2003 Harvard Business School study reported that culture has a significant effect on the organization's long-term economic performance. The study examines management practices in 160 organizations over ten years and finds that culture can improve performance or prove to be detrimental to performance. Organizations with a strong performance-oriented culture witness a much better financial growth. In addition, a 2002 Corporate Leadership Board study found that cultural features such as risk taking, internal communication, and flexibility are some of the most important performance drivers, and can affect individual performance. Furthermore, innovation, productivity through people, and other cultural factors cited by Peters and Waterman (1982) also have positive economic consequences.

Denison, Haaland, and Goelzer (2004) find that culture contributes to organizational success, but not all dimensions contribute equally. It was found that the effects of these dimensions differed from that of the global region, indicating that organizational culture was influenced by national culture. In addition, Clarke (2006) found that the security climate is related to the organization's security records.

Organizational culture is reflected in the way people do tasks, set goals, and manage the resources needed to achieve goals. Culture influences the way individuals make decisions, feel, and act in response to opportunities and threats that affect the organization.

Adkins and Caldwell (2004) found that job satisfaction is positively related to the extent to which employees enter into the overall culture and subculture in which they work. The perceived inadequacies of the organizational culture and what employees perceive to be culturally relevant should be linked to a number of negative consequences including lower job satisfaction, higher employment tensions, general pressure, and shifting desire.

It has been proposed that organizational culture can affect the level of employee creativity, employee motivation power, and unethical behavior reporting, but more research is needed to support this conclusion.

Organizational culture also affects recruitment and retention. Individuals tend to be interested and remain engaged in organizations they deem compatible. In addition, high turnover may be an intermediate factor in the relationship between culture and organizational performance. The deterioration of company performance and unhealthy work environment are signs of late cultural assessment.

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Change

When an organization does not have a healthy culture or requires some kind of organizational culture change, the process of change can be daunting. Organizational culture can hamper new change efforts, especially when employees know their expectations and the roles they should play in the organization. This is corroborated by Mar (2016: 1) who argues that 70% of all change attempts fail because of organizational culture of the organization. One of the main reasons why such change is difficult is that the organizational culture, and the organizational structure in which they are embedded, often reflect the "footprint" of the previous period in a persistent way and demonstrate a remarkable level of inertia. Cultural changes may be needed to reduce employee turnover, affect employee behavior, improve company, refocus corporate goals and/or re-scale organizations, provide better customer service, and/or achieve company-specific goals and outcomes. Cultural change is influenced by a number of elements, including the external environment and industry competitors, changes in industry standards, technological changes, size and nature of labor, and the history and management of the organization.

There are a number of specialized methodologies dedicated to organizational culture changes such as Peter Senge Fifth Discipline . There are also various psychological approaches that have been developed into systems for specific outcomes like the Fifth Discipline "learning organization" or Communication Directive "the evolution of corporate culture." Ideas and strategies, on the other hand, seem to vary according to certain influences that affect culture.

Burman and Evans (2008) argue that it is 'leadership' that affects culture rather than 'management', and illustrates the difference. When a person wants to change an organization's cultural aspect, one should still consider that this is a long-term project. Corporate culture is something that is very difficult to change and employees need time to get used to the way the new organization. For companies with a very strong and specific culture, it will be more difficult to change.

Prior to cultural change initiatives, needs assessment is needed to identify and understand the current organizational culture. This can be done through employee surveys, interviews, focus groups, observations, appropriate customer surveys, and other internal research, to further identify areas that require change. The company must then assess and clearly identify the desired new culture, and then design the change process.

One of the biggest obstacles in the way organizations are merged is organizational culture. Every organization has its own unique culture and most often, when put together, these cultures collide. When a merger fails, employees point to issues such as identity, communication problems, human resource issues, ego clashes, and group conflict, all of which belong to the category of "cultural differences".

One way to overcome such difficulties is through cultural leadership. Organizational leaders must also be cultural leaders and help facilitate the transformation of the two old cultures into a new culture. This is done through cultural innovation followed by cultural preservation.

• Cultural innovations include:
  • Create a new culture: recognize cultural differences in the past and set realistic expectations for change
  • Change culture: weaken and replace old culture
• Cultural treatments include:
  • Integrates a new culture: reconciles the difference between old culture and new culture
  • Creating a new culture: Setting, affirming, and preserving a new culture

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Corporate subculture

Corporate culture is the sum total of values, customs, traditions, and meanings that make the company unique. Corporate culture is often called "organizational character", because it embodies the vision of the company's founders. Corporate culture values ​​influence ethical standards within the company, as well as managerial behavior.

Senior management might try to define corporate culture . They may want to impose company values ​​and behavior standards that specifically reflect the goals of the organization. In addition, there will be an internal culture that still exists within the workforce. Workgroups within an organization have their own habits and behavioral interactions that, to some extent, affect the whole system. The four-culture typology of Roger Harrison, and adapted by Charles Handy, suggests that unlike organizational culture, corporate culture can be 'imported'. For example, computer technicians will have the skills, languages ​​and behaviors acquired independently of the organization, but their presence can affect an organization's overall culture.

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Legal aspects

Corporate culture can legally be found as a cause of injury and a reason for finance companies in the US, for example, when the US Department of Labor Safety and Health Mines Department imposed a fine of more than $ 10.8 million for Performance Coal Co. after the Big Big Branch Mine disaster in April 2010. This is the biggest fine in the history of this US government agency.

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Critical views

Criticism of the term by managers has begun to emerge in the early 80's. Much of the criticism comes from the authors in critical management studies which for example reveal skepticism about the functionalist and unitarist views of culture advanced by mainstream management writers. They emphasize the ways in which these cultural assumptions can paralyze management's dissent and reproduce propaganda and ideology. They suggest that organizations lacking a culture and cultural engineering may not reflect the interests of all stakeholders within an organization.

Parker (2000) states that many of the assumptions of those who put forward the theory of organizational culture are not new. They reflect the old tension between the cultural and structural (or informal and formal) versions of what organization. Further, it makes sense to suggest that complex organizations may have many cultures, and that they may overlap and contradict each other. The neat typology of the cultural forms found in textbooks rarely acknowledge such complexity, or the various economic contradictions that exist in capitalist organizations.

Among the most powerful and widely acclaimed writers on corporate culture, with a long list of articles on leadership, culture, gender, and their intersection, is Linda Smircich. As part of a critical management study, he criticized the theories that attempt to categorize or 'override' organizational culture. He uses the metaphor of plant roots to represent culture, saying that it encourages organizations rather than the other way around. Organization is a product of organizational culture; we are not aware of how it shapes behavior and interaction (also implicit in the underlying assumptions of Schein (2002)), and how can we categorize it and determine what it is?

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Research and model

Several methods have been used to classify organizational culture. Although there is no "type" of organizational culture and organizational culture that varies from one organization to another, similarity exists and some researchers have developed models to illustrate the various indicators of organizational culture. Some are described below:

Hofstede

Hofstede (1980) sought the distinction between more than 160,000 IBM employees in 50 different countries and three regions of the world, in an effort to discover the cultural aspects that might affect business behavior. He suggests things about cultural differences that exist in regions and countries, and the importance of international awareness and multiculturalism for their own cultural introspection. Cultural differences reflect differences in social thought and action, and even in "mental programs", the term Hofstede is used for predictable behavior. Hofstede associates cultures with ethnic and regional groups, but also organizations, professionals, families, social groups and subcultures, national political systems and legislation, etc.

Hofstede suggests the need to change the "mental program" by changing the behavior first, which will lead to a change of value. Although certain groups such as Jews and Gypsies have maintained their identity for centuries, their values ​​show adaptation to the dominant cultural environment.

Hofstede points out that there are national and regional cultural groups that influence organizational behavior and identify four cultural dimensions (five later) in his study of national culture:

• Power spacing (Mauk Mulder, 1977) - Different societies find different solutions to social inequality. Although not visible, within the organization the inequalities of power of "subordinate-subordinate relations" are functional and according to Hofstede reflect the way inequality is addressed in society. "According to the Mulder Power Reduction theorists will try to reduce the power distance between them and their boss and the boss will try to defend or enlarge it", but there are also levels where people expect differences in levels. power. A high score indicates that there is hope that some people use more power than others. A low score reflects the view that everyone should have equal rights.
• Uncertainty avoidance is a way of overcoming uncertainty about the future. Society overcomes it with technology, law and religion (though different societies have different ways of dealing with it), and according to the Hofstede organization facing it with technology, laws and rituals, or in two ways - rational and non-rational, ritual becomes irrational. Hofstede listed several rituals as memos and reports, some parts of the accounting system, most of the planning and control systems, and the nomination of experts.
• Individualism vs. collectivism - disharmony of interests on personal and collective ends (Parsons and Shils, 1951). Hofstede raises the idea that people's expectations of Individualism/Collectivism will be reflected by employees within the organization. Collectivist societies will have more emotional dependence on members within their organizations; when in balance the organization is expected to show responsibility to the members. Extreme individualism is seen in the US. In fact, collectivism in the US is seen as "bad". Therefore, cultures and societies other than the US will seek to resolve social and organizational problems in a way that is different from the American way. Hofstede says that the capitalist market economy fosters individualism and competition, and relies on it, but individualism is also linked to the development of the middle class. Some people and cultures may have high individualism and high collectivism. For example, a person who highly values ​​the work for his group does not always give low priority to personal freedom and independence.
• Masculinity vs femininity - reflects whether a particular society is predominantly male or female in terms of cultural values, gender roles and power relations.
• Long- Versus Short-Term Orientation which he describes as "The long-term orientation dimension can be defined as dealing with the search for society for good." People with short-term orientations generally have a strong interest in establishing the Absolute Truth, they are normative in their thinking. show a great deal of respect for tradition, a relatively small tendency to save for the future, and focus on achieving rapid results. In a society with long-term orientation, people believe that truth depends greatly on the situation, context and time. adjusting traditions with changing conditions, strong tendencies to save and invest, saving, and persistence in achieving results. "

These dimensions refer to the influence of national culture on management, and can be used to adapt policies to local needs. In advanced studies, other models are suggested for organizational culture.

O'Reilly, Chatman and Caldwell Daniel Denison

The Daniel Denison (1990) model asserts that organizational culture can be described by four common dimensions - Mission, Adaptability, Engagement and Consistency. Each of these common dimensions is further explained by the following three sub-dimensions:

• Mission - Strategic Directives and Goals, Goals, and Goals and Vision
• Adaptability - Creating Change, Customer Focus, and Organizational Learning
• Engagement - Empowerment, Team Orientation, and Capability Development
• Consistency - Core Values, Agreement, Coordination/Integration

The Denison model also allows the culture to be broadly described as being externally or internally focused and flexible rather than stable. This model is usually used to diagnose cultural issues within the organization.

Deal and Kennedy

Deal and Kennedy (1982) define organizational culture as how to do something here .

The Agreement and Kennedy created a cultural model based on 4 different types of organizations. They each focus on how quickly the organization receives feedback, how members are valued, and the level of risk taken:

1. Hard-working, hard-working culture : It has quick feedback and low risk generating: Stress coming from quantity of work rather than uncertainty. High speed action leading to high-speed recreation. Examples: Restaurant, software company.
2. Strong male-macho culture: It has fast, high-risk feedback, which results in the following: Stress derived from high risk and potential loss/prize gains. Focus on the present rather than the long-term future. Example: police, surgeon, sports.
3. Process culture : It has slow, low-risk feedback/rewards, resulting in the following: Low stress, sluggish work, comfort and security. Stress comes from internal politics and system ignorance. Development of bureaucracy and other ways to maintain the status quo. Focus on the security of the past and the future. Example: bank, insurance company.
4. Bet-the-company culture : It has a slow, high-risk feedback/reward, which results in the following: Stress from high risk and delay before knowing whether the action has resulted results. A long view is taken, but then much work is done to make sure things happen as planned. Example: aircraft manufacturer, oil company.

Edgar Schein

According to Schein (1992), culture is the most difficult organizational attribute to change, the product of organization, service, founder and wrong leadership, and all other physical attributes of the organization. The organizational model illuminates the culture from the viewer's point of view, described on three levels: , supports the values ​​ and basic assumptions .

At the first and most cursory level the Schein model is an organizational attribute that can be seen, felt and heard by an uninitiated observer - collectively known as the artifact . Included are the facilities, offices, furniture, awards and visible acknowledgments, the way their members dress, how everyone is seen interacting with each other and with outsiders, and even company slogans, mission statements and other operational creeds.

The artifact consists of the physical components of the organization that convey the cultural meaning. Daniel Denison (1990) describes the artifacts as a real aspect of the culture owned by members of the organization. Verbal, behavioral and physical artifacts are the manifestations of the cultural surface of an organization.

Rituals, behaviors and collective interpersonal values ​​as demonstrated by that behavior, constitute the organizational culture structure. The content of myths, stories, and stories reveals the history of the organization and influences the way people perceive the value and beliefs of their organizations. Language, stories and myths are examples of verbal artifacts and are represented in rituals and ceremonies. The technology and art shown by members of the organization are examples of physical artifacts.

The next level relates to the recognized culture of the organization's members - values ​​ . Shared values ​​are individual preferences regarding certain aspects of an organization's culture (eg loyalty, customer service). At this level, local and personal values ​​are widely expressed within the organization. Basic beliefs and assumptions include individual impressions of trust and organizational support, and are often deeply embedded in organizational culture. Organizational behavior at this level can usually be learned by interviewing organizational membership and using questionnaires to collect attitudes about organizational membership.

At the third and deepest level, organizational tacit assumptions are found. These are cultural elements that are not visible and not cognitively identified in the daily interactions between members of the organization. In addition, it is a cultural element that is often taboo to be discussed within the organization. Many of these 'unspoken rules' exist without the conscious knowledge of membership. Those who have enough experience to understand the deepest levels of organizational culture usually become familiar with their attributes over time, thus reinforcing their unseen presence. Surveys and casual interviews with organizational members can not attract these attributes - much more is needed to identify first and then understand the organizational culture at this level. In particular, culture at this level is the underlying and driving element often overlooked by organizational behaviorists.

Using the Schein model, understanding the paradoxical organizational behavior becomes clearer. For example, an organization can have very high aesthetic and moral standards at the second level of the Schein model while simultaneously displaying curious behavior at the third and deepest level of culture. Superficially, organizational rewards can imply one organizational norm but at the very least imply that something is completely different. This insight offers an understanding of the difficulties that new organizers have in assimilating the organizational culture and why it takes time to adjust. It also explains why organizational change agents usually fail to achieve their goals: underlying hidden cultural norms are generally not understood before potential change agents begin their actions. Just understanding culture at the deepest level may not be enough to institutionalize cultural change because the dynamics of interpersonal relationships (often in threatening conditions) are added to the dynamics of organizational culture while efforts are made to institutionalize desired change.

According to Schein (1992), the two main reasons why culture evolves within an organization are due to external adaptation and internal integration. External adaptations reflect an evolutionary approach to organizational culture and show that cultures thrive and survive because they help the organization to survive and thrive. If the culture is valuable, then it has the potential to produce a sustainable competitive advantage. In addition, internal integration is an important function because social structures are necessary for organizations to exist. Organizational practices are learned through socialization at work. The work environment reinforces culture every day by encouraging employees to use cultural values. Organizational culture is shaped by several factors, including the following:

• External environment
• Industry
• The size and nature of the organization's workforce
• The technology the organization uses
• Organizational history and ownership

Gerry Johnson

Gerry Johnson (1988) describes the web culture, identifying a number of elements that can be used to describe or influence an organizational culture:

• Paradigm : What does the organization mean, what it does, its mission, its values.
• Control system : Process in place to monitor what is going on. Role culture will have an extensive rule book. There will be more dependence on individualism in the culture of power.
• Organizational structure : The reporting line, hierarchy, and how it works through the business.
• Power structure : Who makes the decision, how broad is its spread is power, and by what power is it?
• Symbols : This includes the logo and design of the organization, but also extends to power symbols such as parking lots and executive restrooms.
• Rituals and routines : Management meetings, board reports and so on can become more accustomed than they should be.
• Stories and myths : build about people and events, and deliver messages about what's valued within the organization.

These elements may overlap. The structure of power can depend on a control system, which can exploit rituals that produce stories that may not be true.

Stanley G. Harris

Schemata (plural schema) is the structure of knowledge that a person develops from past experiences, enabling people to respond to similar events more efficiently in the future by guiding the processing of information. A person's scheme is created through interaction with others, and thus inherently involves communication.

Stanley G. Harris (1994) argues that the five categories of schemes within organizations are necessary for organizational culture:

1. Self-scheme within the organization : the concept of a person about oneself in an organizational context, including his personality, roles, and behavior.
2. People-in-organization schemes : people's memories, impressions, and expectations from others within the organization.
3. Organizational schema : part of a person's schemata, a person's general perspective on others as a whole in the organization.
4. Object/concept-in-organizational schema : the knowledge that the individual has has an organizational aspect other than others.
5. Event-in-organization schemes : one's knowledge of social events within an organization.

All of these categories together represent a person's knowledge of an organization. Organizational culture is created when schemes (schematic structures) of different individuals within and within an organization come to resemble each other (when one's schemata resembles the scheme of others due to mutual organizational engagement), primarily through organizational communication, such as individuals directly or indirectly share knowledge and meaning.

Charles Handy

Charles Handy (1976), popularized Roger Harrison (1972) by linking the organizational structure with organizational culture. The four types of culture described are:

1. Power culture : concentrates power among small groups or central figures and controls radiating from the center like the web. The culture of power requires only a few rules and a bit of bureaucracy but quick decisions can occur.
2. Role culture : Such delegated authority is in a very clear structure. These organizations form a hierarchical bureaucracy, in which power comes from a personal position and rarely from the power of the expert. Controls are made with procedures (which are highly valued), rigorous role description and definition of authority. These organizations have a consistent and highly predictable system. This culture is often represented by "Roman Buildings" having pillars. These pillars represent functional departments.
3. Duty culture : teams are set up to solve specific problems. Power comes from a team with the skills to carry out the task. This culture uses a small team approach, where people are highly skilled and specialized in their own field of expertise. In addition, this culture often displays several lines of reporting that are visible in the matrix structure.
4. Culture of people : formed where all individuals believe themselves to be higher than the organization. It can be difficult for such an organization to continue to operate, because the organization concept shows that a group of like-minded individuals pursues organizational goals. However some professional partnerships operate well as people culture, because each partner brings certain skills and customers to the company.

Kim Cameron and Robert Quinn

Kim Cameron and Robert Quinn (1999) conducted research on the effectiveness and success of the organization. Based on the Competitor's Value Framework, they developed an Organizational Cultural Assessment Tool that distinguishes four types of cultures.

Competing values ​​produce polarity such as flexibility vs. stability and internal or external focus - these two poles are found most important in defining organizational success. Polarity builds quadrants with four types of cultures:

• Clan culture (internal and flexible focus) - A friendly workplace where leaders act like father figures.
• Culture of adhocracy (external and flexible focus) - Dynamic workplace with leaders that stimulate innovation.
• Market culture (external and controlled focus) - Competitive workplace with leaders like hard drivers
• Hierarchical culture (internal and controlled focus) - A structured and formalized workplace where leaders act like coordinators.

Cameron and Quinn set out six characteristics of organizational culture that can be assessed by the Organization Cultural Valuation Instrument (OCAI).

Clan culture is strongly associated with positive employee attitudes and quality of products and services. Market culture is closely related to innovation and criteria of financial effectiveness. The key beliefs in a clear market culture of goals and contingent rewards motivate employees to aggressively perform and meet the expectations of stakeholders; the core belief in the clan culture is that organizational trust and commitment to employees facilitates open communication and employee engagement. These different results suggest that it is important for executive leaders to consider the fit between strategic initiatives and organizational culture when determining how to instill a culture that results in a competitive advantage. By assessing the current organizational culture as well as the favorable situation, the gap and direction of change can be made visible as the first step to changing organizational culture.

Robert A. Cooke

Robert A. Cooke defines culture as a behavior that members believe must fit and meet expectations within their organization. Inventory Organizational Culture measures twelve behavioral norms grouped into three common cultural types:

• A constructive culture, in which members are encouraged to interact with people and approach tasks in a way that helps them meet their high level of satisfaction needs.
• A passive/defensive culture, in which members believe they have to interact with others in a way that will not threaten their own security.
• An aggressive/defensive culture, in which members are expected to approach the task in a strong way to protect their status and safety.

Constructive culture

In a constructive culture, people are encouraged to communicate with their colleagues, and work as a team, not just as individuals. In a position where people do complex work, rather than something as simple as a mechanical task, this culture is efficient. Successful completion of tasks, usually with effort, courage, or skill (pursuing a standard of excellence) (exploring alternatives before acting) - Based on the need to achieve high quality results at challenging projects, the belief that results are related to one's business rather than coincidence and the inclination to personally set challenging but realistic goals. High people in this style think ahead and plan, explore alternatives before acting and learn from their mistakes.

Self-actualization : the realization or fulfillment of one's talents and potential - is considered a boost or necessity present in everyone (think in a unique and independent way) (do simple tasks well) - Based on the need for personal growth, self-fulfillment and the realization of one's potential. People with this style demonstrate a strong desire to learn and experience things, creative yet realistic thinking and a balanced concern for people and tasks.

Humanistic-encouraging : helping others to grow and develop (resolving conflict constructively) - Reflecting interest in people's growth and development, high sense of positiveness to them and sensitivity to their needs. High-level people in this style devote energy to training and counseling others, thinking and considering and providing support and encouragement to people.

Affiliation : treating people is more valuable than things (working with others) - Reflects an interest in developing and maintaining a pleasant relationship. The tall people in this style share their thoughts and feelings, friendly and cooperative and make others feel part of things.

Organizations with a constructive culture encourage members to work maximally, resulting in a level of motivation, satisfaction, teamwork, service quality, and high sales growth. Constructive norms are evident in environments where quality is valued beyond quantity, creativity rewarded above conformity, cooperation is believed to lead to better outcomes than competition, and effectiveness is assessed at the system level rather than component level. These types of cultural norms are consistent with (and support) the goals behind empowerment, total quality management, transformational leadership, continuous improvement, reengineering, and learning organizations.

Passive/defensive culture

Norms that reflect expectations for members to interact with people in ways that will not threaten their own security are in the Passive/Cluster Defensive.

Four Passive/Defense cultural norms are:

• Approval
• Conventional
• Dependents
• Avoidance

In organizations with a Passive/Defensive culture, members feel pressured to think and behave in ways that are inconsistent with the way they believe they should be effective. People are expected to please others (especially bosses) and avoid interpersonal conflict. Rules, procedures, and orders are more important than personal beliefs, ideas, and judgments. Passive/defensive culture experiences many unresolved conflicts and turns, and organizational members report lower levels of motivation and satisfaction.

Aggressive/defensive culture

This style is characterized by more emphasis on task than people. Due to the nature of this style, people tend to focus on their individual needs at the expense of group success. The aggressive/defensive style is very stressful, and people using this style tend to make decisions based on status as opposed to skill.

1. Oppositional - This cultural norm is based on the idea that the need for security that takes shape becomes very critical and cynical at any given time. People who use this style are more likely to question the work of others; However, asking that

   Source of the article : Wikipedia